Dendrimers as scaffolds for multifunctional reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer agents: Syntheses and polymerization

The synthesis and characterization of novel first‐ and second‐generation true dendritic reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) agents carrying 6 or 12 pendant 3‐benzylsulfanylthiocarbonylsulfanylpropionic acid RAFT end groups with Z‐group architecture based on 1,1,1‐hydroxyphenyl ethane and trimethylolpropane cores are described in detail. The multifunctional dendritic RAFT agents have been used to prepare star polymers of poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA) and polystyrene (PS) of narrow polydispersities (1.4 < polydispersity index < 1.1 for PBA and 1.5 < polydispersity index < 1.3 for PS) via bulk free‐radical polymerization at 60 °C. The novel dendrimer‐based multifunctional RAFT agents effect an efficient living polymerization process, as evidenced by the linear evolution of the number‐average molecular weight (M_n) with the monomer–polymer conversion, yielding star polymers with molecular weights of up to M_n = 160,000 g mol^?1 for PBA (based on a linear PBA calibration) and up to M_n = 70,000 g mol^?1 for PS (based on a linear PS calibration). A structural change in the chemical nature of the dendritic core (i.e., 1,1,1‐hydroxyphenyl ethane vs trimethylolpropane) has no influence on the observed molecular weight distributions. The star‐shaped structure of the generated polymers has been confirmed through the cleavage of the pendant arms off the core of the star‐shaped polymeric materials. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 5877–5890, 2004     

Intramolecular energy transferable (2,2‐diphenylvinyl)phenyl substituted poly(p‐phenylenevinylene) derivative with efficient photoluminescence and electroluminescence

A poly(p‐phenylenevinylene) (PPV) derivative containing a bulky (2,2‐diphenylvinyl)phenyl group in the side chain, EHDVP‐PPV, was synthesized by Gilch route. The reduced tolane‐bisbenzyl (TBB) defects, as well as the structure of the polymer, was confirmed by various spectroscopic methods. The intramolecular energy transfer from the (2,2‐diphenylvinyl)phenyl side group to the PPV backbone was studied by UV‐vis and photoluminescence (PL) of the obtained polymer and model compound. The polymer film showed maximum absorption and emission peaks at 454 and 546 nm, respectively, and high PL efficiency of 57%. A yellow electroluminescence (λ_max = 548 nm) was obtained with intensities of 6479 cd/m² when the light‐emitting diodes of ITO/PEDOT/EHDVP‐PPV/LiF/Al were fabricated. The maximum power efficiency of the devices was 0.729 lm/W with a turn‐on voltage of 3.6 V. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 5636–5646, 2004     

Controlled synthesis of amphiphilic biodegradable polylactide‐grafted dextran copolymers

The whole controlled synthesis of novel amphiphilic polylactide (PLA)‐grafted dextran copolymers was achieved. The control of the architecture of such biodegradable and potentially biocompatible copolymers has required a three‐step synthesis based on the “grafting from” concept. The first step consisted of the partial silylation of the dextran hydroxyl groups. This protection step was followed by the ring‐opening polymerization of D ,L ‐lactide initiated from the remaining OH functions of the partially silylated polysaccharide. The third step involved the silylether group deprotection under very mild conditions. Based on previous studies, in which the control of the first step was achieved, this study is focused on the last two steps. Experimental conditions were investigated to ensure a controlled polymerization of D ,L ‐lactide, in terms of grafting efficiency, graft length, and transesterification limitation. After polymerization, the final step was studied in order to avoid degradation of both polysaccharide backbone and polyester grafts. The chemical stability of dextran backbone was checked throughout each step of the synthesis. PLA‐grafted dextrans and PLA‐grafted (silylated dextrans) were proved to adopt a core‐shell conformation in various solvents. Furthermore, preliminary experiments on the potential use of these amphiphilic grafted copolymers as liquid/liquid interface stabilizers were performed. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 2577–2588, 2004     

Standardization of BSE rapid test performances and experiences gathered during the implementation of large-scale testing

The accumulation of pathological prion protein is used as a diagnostic marker for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. According to European Union (EU) regulations cattle older than 30 months of age (Germany, France, Italy, and Spain by national law >24 months) and slaughtered for human consumption must be tested by using rapid tests for bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Likewise fallen stock and clinically affected animals must be tested. This article gives a short overview of the incidence of BSE in Europe. The diagnostic hierarchy, i.e., the officially approved methodology for the confirmation of suspect rapid test cases, and the organization of the numerous laboratories involved in this large-scale testing for BSE are described. Special emphasis is given to necessary quality control measures currently in place for BSE rapid testing laboratories and to measures intended to assure a consistent performance of the commercially available rapid test kits.Presented at BERM-9—Ninth International Symposium on Biological and Environmental Reference Materials, 15–19 June 2003, Berlin, Germany.     

Novel,organosoluble, light‐colored fluorinated polyimides based on 2,2′‐bis(4‐amino‐2‐trifluoromethylphenoxy)biphenyl or 2,2′‐bis(4‐amino‐2‐trifluoromethylphenoxy)‐1,1′‐binaphthyl

Two series of fluorinated polyimides were prepared from 2,2′‐bis(4‐amino‐2‐trifluoromethylphenoxy)biphenyl ( 2 ) and 2,2′‐bis(4‐amino‐2‐trifluoromethylphenoxy)‐1,1′‐binaphthyl ( 4 ) with various aromatic dianhydrides via a conventional, two‐step procedure that included a ring‐opening polyaddition to give poly(amic acid)s, followed by chemical or thermal cyclodehydration. The inherent viscosities of the polyimides ranged from 0.54 to 0.73 and 0.19 to 0.36 dL/g, respectively. All the fluorinated polyimides were soluble in many polar organic solvents, such as N,N‐dimethylacetamide and N‐methylpyrrolidone, and afforded transparent and light‐colored films via solution‐casting. These polyimides showed glass‐transition temperatures in the ranges of 222–280 and 257–351 °C by DSC, softening temperatures in the range of 264–301 °C by thermomechanical analysis, and a decomposition temperature for 10% weight loss above 520 °C both in nitrogen and air atmospheres. The polyimides had low moisture absorptions of 0.23–0.58%, low dielectric constants of 2.84–3.61 at 10 kHz, and an ultraviolet–visible absorption cutoff wavelength at 351–434 nm. Copolyimides derived from the same dianhydrides with an equimolar mixture of 4,4′‐oxydianiline and diamine 2 or 4 were also prepared and characterized. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 2416–2431, 2004     

Synthesis and characterization of well‐defined diblock and triblock copolymers of poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) and poly(ethylene oxide)

Well‐defined diblock and triblock copolymers composed of poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) were successfully synthesized through the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer polymerization of N‐isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) with PEO capped with one or two dithiobenzoyl groups as a macrotransfer agent. ¹H NMR, Fourier transform infrared, and gel permeation chromatography instruments were used to characterize the block copolymers obtained. The results showed that the diblock and triblock copolymers had well‐defined structures and narrow molecular weight distributions (weight‐average molecular weight/number‐average molecular weight < 1.2), and the molecular weight of the PNIPAM block in the diblock and triblock copolymers could be controlled by the initial molar ratio of NIPAM to dithiobenzoate‐terminated PEO and the NIPAM conversion. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 4873–4881, 2004     

Metallo‐supramolecular block copolymer micelles: Improved preparation and characterization

Micelles prepared from amphiphilic block copolymers in which a poly(styrene) segment is connected to a poly(ethylene oxide) block via a bis‐(2,2′:6′,2″‐terpyridine‐ruthenium) complex have been intensely studied. In most cases, the micelle populations were found to be strongly heterogeneous in size because of massive micelle/micelle aggregation. In the study reported in this article we tried to improve the homogeneity of the micelle population. The variant preparation procedure developed, which is described here, was used to prepare two “protomer”‐type micelles: PS₂₀‐[Ru]‐PEO₇₀ and PS₂₀‐[Ru]‐PEO₃₇₅. The dropwise addition of water to a solution of the compounds in dimethylformamide was replaced by the controlled addition of water by a syringe pump. The resulting micelles were characterized by sedimentation velocity and sedimentation equilibrium analyses in an analytical ultracentrifuge and by transmission electron microscopy of negatively stained samples. Sedimentation analysis showed virtually unimodal size distributions, in contrast to the findings on micelles prepared previously. PS₂₀‐[Ru]‐PEO₇₀ micelles were found to have an average molar mass of 318,000 g/mol (corresponding to 53 protomers per micelle, which is distinctly less than after micelle preparation by the standard method) and an average hydrodynamic diameter (d_h) of 18 nm. For PS₂₀‐[Ru]‐PEO₃₇₅ micelles, the corresponding values were M = 603,000 g/mol (31 protomers per micelle) and d_h = 34 nm. The latter particles were found to be identical to the “equilibrium” micelles prepared in pure water. Both micelle types had a very narrow molar mass distribution but a much broader distribution of s values and thus of hydrodynamic diameters. This indicates a conformational heterogeneity that is stable on the time scale of sedimentation velocity analysis. The findings from electron microscopy were in disagreement with those from the sedimentation analysis both in average micelle diameter and in the width of the distributions, apparently because of imperfections in the staining procedure. The preparation procedure described also may be useful in micelle formation from other types of protomers. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 4458–4465, 2004     

Reversible nonlinear conduction in high‐density polyethylene/acetylene carbon black composites at various ambient temperatures

The reversible nonlinear conduction (RNC) in of high‐density polyethylene/acetylene carbon black composites with different degrees of crosslinking was studied above room temperature and below the melting point of high‐density polyethylene (HDPE). The experimental current density‐electric field strength curves can be overlapped onto a master curve, suggesting that the microscopic mechanisms for the appearance of RNC exist regardless of the ambient temperature and the crosslinking degree of the HDPE matrix. The relationship between the crossover current density and the linear conductivity can be explained in the framework of the dynamic random‐resistor‐network model. According to these results, two electron‐tunneling models are suggested to interpret the microscopic conduction behavior. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 1212–1217, 2004     

Extension of the chain‐end,free‐volume theory for predicting glass temperature as a function of conversion in hyperbranched polymers obtained through one‐pot approaches

Compared with linear polymers, more factors may affect the glass‐transition temperature (T_g) of a hyperbranched structure, for instance, the contents of end groups, the chemical properties of end groups, branching junctions, and the compactness of a hyperbranched structure. T_g's decrease with increasing content of end‐group free volumes, whereas they increase with increasing polarity of end groups, junction density, or compactness of a hyperbranched structure. However, end‐group free volumes are often a prevailing factor according to the literature. In this work, chain‐end, free‐volume theory was extended for predicting the relations of T_g to conversion (X) and molecular weight (M) in hyperbranched polymers obtained through one‐pot approaches of either polycondensation or self‐condensing vinyl polymerization. The theoretical relations of polymerization degrees to monomer conversions in developing processes of hyperbranched structures reported in the literature were applied in the extended model, and some interesting results were obtained. T_g's of hyperbranched polymers showed a nonlinear relation to reciprocal molecular weight, which differed from the linear relation observed in linear polymers. T_g values decreased with increasing molecular weight in the low‐molecular‐weight range; however, they increased with increasing molecular weight in the high‐molecular‐weight range. T_g values decreased with increasing log M and then turned to a constant value in the high‐molecular‐weight range. The plot of T_g versus 1/M or log M for hyperbranched polymers may exhibit intersecting straight‐line behaviors. The intersection or transition does not result from entanglements that account for such intersections in linear polymers but from a nonlinear feature in hyperbranched polymers according to chain‐end, free‐volume theory. However, the conclusions obtained in this work cannot be extended to dendrimers because after the third generation, the end‐group extents of a dendrimer decrease with molecular weight. Thus, it is very possible for a dendrimer that T_g increases with 1/M before the third generation; however, it decreases with 1/M after the third generation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 1235–1242, 2004     

The effect of compatibilization and rheological properties of polystyrene and poly(dimethylsiloxane) on phase structure of polystyrene/poly(dimethylsiloxane) blends

The compatibilization effect of polystyrene (PS)‐poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) diblock copolymer (PS‐b‐PDMS) and the effect of rheological properties of PS and PDMS on phase structure of PS/PDMS blends were investigated using a selective extraction technique and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The dual‐phase continuity of PS/PDMS blends takes place in a wide composition range. The formation and the onset of a cocontinuous phase structure largely depend on blend composition, viscosity ratio of the constituent components, and addition of diblock copolymers. The width of the concentration region of the cocontinuous structure is narrowed with increasing the viscosity ratio of the blends and in the presence of the small amount diblock copolymers. Quiescent annealing shifts the onset values of continuity. The experimental results are compared with the volume fraction of phase inversion calculated with various theoretical models, but none of the models can account quantitatively for the observed data. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 42: 898–913, 2004